Tag Archives: omega 3

Fish Oil and Athletic Performance

Athletes are always looking for a competitive edge to improve athletic performance. Whether the end result is a 5- to 10-lb. increase in muscle mass, less muscle soreness, or a reduction in body fat, athletes will go the extra mile to find that edge. Gaining an advantage over the opponent could mean winning a gold medal, making the final shot, or having the energy to outlast a competitor on the mat or in the ring. In addition to a balanced diet, athletes are turning to dietary supplements to gain that advantage. Popular supplements such as creatine, branched chain amino acids (BCAA’s), HMB, beta-alanine, and caffeine have been widely used throughout the athletic community. One supplement that has gained the attention of athletes is fish oil.

The growth of fish oil use among consumers has been quite impressive, as sales have risen from $425 million in 2007 to $1 billion dollars in 2012. Widely touted for its beneficial effects for cardiovascular health, fish oil has not been considered an essential piece in an athlete’s supplement regimen. In this article, I will discuss why fish oil is a critical piece to help athletes gain that competitive edge and stay in the game.

Healthy Joints, Range of Motion – Whether you’re participating in a year-round strength and conditioning program, playing multiple sports, or training at a high intensity, your muscles, joints, and tissues will experience inflammation (i.e. swelling, soreness, and redness). Inflammation is not necessarily a bad thing as this is a critical component of the recovery process. At the same time, acute and chronic inflammation may augment muscle soreness which can limit range of motion and potentially impair athletic performance. In addition, the American diet is saturated with omega-6 rich foods (fried foods, vegetable and soybean oils, salad dressings, potato chips, etc.) that promote inflammation. A diet rich in omega-3 essential fatty acids from fish (salmon, mackerel, halibut, anchovies) and/or from fish oil supplementation, can balance the effects of a diet high in omega-6 fatty acids. A study by Bloomer et al. demonstrated 4 grams of omega-3 fatty acids (2224 mg EPA + 2208 mg DHA) reduces markers of inflammation (i.e. CRP and TNF-alpha) after an intense exercise session (i.e. 60 min treadmill climb with weighted backpack). (1)

Improve Body Composition – Most people don’t expect to read about consuming fat and losing body fat in the same sentence. The essential fatty acids in fish oil (EPA and DHA) were studied in numerous animal models throughout the 80s and 90s and demonstrated a reduction in body fat (2,3) and a prevention of adipose tissue growth (4-6). Does fish oil have the same effect in humans? A study was conducted in which young, non-obese males were given 6 grams of fish oil (1100 mg EPA and 700 mg DHA) in place of 6 grams of butter, olive oil, peanut oil, or sunflower oil. After three weeks, subjects experienced a significant increase in fat oxidation and a 1.94 lb decrease in body fat (7). In a more recent study, young men and women were give 4 grams of fish oil per day (1600 mg EPA and 800 mg DHA) for six weeks vs. 4 grams of safflower oil in the placebo group. The fish oil group lost 0.5 kg of fat mass and gained 0.5 g of lean mass whereas the safflower oil group showed a tendency to gain fat mass. (8). The mechanism of action between fish oil and fat loss seems to be related to its ability to improve insulin sensitivity which improves fat burning and inhibits fat storage (9,10). Furthermore, studies have also shown fish oil supplementation can reduce the stress hormone cortisol (11), which when elevated, can result in a significant increase in fat mass (12).

Muscle Growth – Creatine, beta-alanine, HMB, and the amino acid leucine have held the title as the most popular supplements used by athletes to improve muscle strength, size, and endurance. It’s time to include omega-3 fish oil supplementation in that discussion as new science has emerged examining its anabolic potential. A recent study demonstrated 4 grams of fish oil supplementation (1.86 g EPA and 1.5 g DHA) increased protein synthesis, mTOR signaling pathway (key for muscle growth), and the muscle/protein DNA ratio (i.e. muscle cell size) (13). A similar protocol was used by the same research team to see if these effects were the same in adults over 65. Remarkably, 4 grams of fish oil supplementation increased the muscle protein synthesis response in elderly adults. (14).

How Much to Take? – The levels of omega-3 fats in your body will vary depending on the amount of omega-3 rich fish you eat or the amount of fish oil you take as a supplement. Based on the scientific evidence reported in this article, it seems 3-4 grams per day (1.5 to 2 grams of EPA and 1.5 to 2 grams of DHA) is the ideal dosage to improve joint mobility, improve body composition, and augment muscle growth.

To optimize your omega-3 levels in your blood, while also focusing on improving markers of athletic performance, take 2 grams of fish oil before and after an intense training session. For athletes participating at the collegiate, professional, or Olympic level, to reduce your risk of testing positive for a banned substance, you want a fish oil that has been tested for Sport by NSF (www.nsfsport.com), such as Nordic Naturals Ultimate Omega-D3 Sport®.

BIO: One of the leading sports nutritionist in the industry, Tavis Piattoly is the Sports Dietitian for Tulane Athletics and the NFLPA Brain and Body Trust Program. He served as the Nutritionist for the New Orleans Saints from 2006 to 2013. He works with athletes at all levels, designing nutrition programs for peak performance. An expert on sports supplements, Tavis speaks on supplement safety for young athletes. www.mysportsdconnect.com

References

Bloomer RJ, Larson DE, Fisher-Wellmann KH, Galpin AJ, Schilling BK, Effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid on resting and exercise-induced inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers: a randomized, placebo controlled, cross-over study. Lipids Health Disease 2009; 19:8:36.
Hill JO, Peters JC, Lin D, Yakubu F, Greene H, Swift L, Lipid accumulation and body fat distribution is influenced by type to dietary fat fed to rats. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 1993; 17:223-236.
Ikemoto S, Takahashi M, Tsunoda N, Maruyama K, Itakura H, Ezaki O, High Fat Diet induced hyperglycemia and obesity in mice: differential effects of dietary oils. Metabolism 1996; 45: 1539-1546.
Belzung F, Raclot T, Groscolas R, Fish Oil n-3 fatty acids selectively limit the hypertrophy of abdominal fat depots in growing rats fed high-fat diets. The American Journal of Physiology 1993; 264: R1111-1118.
Parish CC, Pathy DA, Angel A, Dietary Fish Oils limit adipose tissue hypertrophy in rats. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental 1990; 39: 217-219.
Ruzickova J, Rossmeisl M, Prazak T, Flachs P, Sponarova J, Veck M, Tvrzicka E, Bryhn M, Kopecky J, Omega-3 PUFA of marine origin limit diet induced obesity in mice by reducing cellularity of adipose tissue. Lipids 2004; 39:1177-1185.
Couet C, Delarue J, Ritz P, Antoine JM, Lamisse F, Effect of dietary fish oil on body mass and basal fat oxidation in healthy adults. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 1997; 21:637-643.
Noreen EE, Sass MJ, Crowe ML, Pabon VA, Brandauer J, Averill LK, Effects of supplemental fish oil on resting metabolic rate, body composition, and salivary cortisol in healthy adults. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 2010; 7:31.
Kim HJ, Takahashi M, Ezaki O, Fish Oil feeding decreases mature sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP-1) by down regulation of SREBP-1c mRNA in mouse liver. A possible mechanism for down-regulation of lipogenic enzyme mRNAs. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 1999; 274: 25892-25898.
Natatani T, Kim HJ, Kaburagi Y, Yasuda K, Ezaki O, A low fish oil inhibits SREBP-1 proteolytic cascade, while a high-fish oil feeding decreases SREBP-1 mRNA in mice liver: relationship to anti-obesity. Journal of Lipid Research 2003; 44: 369-379.
Delarue J, Matzinger O, Binnert C, Schneiter P, Chiolero R, Tappy L, Fish Oil prevents the adrenal activation elicited by mental stress in healthy men. Diabetes and Metabolism 2003; 29:289-295.
Bjorntorp P, Rosmond R, Obesity and Cortisol 2000; 16: 924-936.
Smith GI, Atherton P, Reeds DN, Mohammed BS, Rankin D, Rennie MJ, Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids augment the muscle protein anabolic response to hyperoinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidaemia in healthy young and middle-aged men and women. Clinical Science (London) 2011; 121 (6): 267-78.
Smith GI, Atherton P, Reeds DN, Mohammed BS, Rankin D, Rennie MJ, Dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation increases the rate of muscle protein synthesis in older adults: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2011; 93 (2): 402-12.

Omega-3s in Athletes

Wanna lose weight? Take some Omega-3, Have joint pain? Take Omega-3s, Depressed? Omega-3!! Overweight, underweight, building muscle, slimming down… Omega-3s seem to be the answer to anything and everything. Even though Omega-3 fatty acids have been making headlines, you might not understand why you need them. Are these fats really that amazing? Here’s a rundown of the essential Omega-3 facts every athlete should know. There are three primary types of omega-3 fatty acids that come from foods. These are ALAs, or alpha-linolenic acids, EPAs, eicosapentaenoic acids, or DHAs, or docosahexaenoic acids. Once consumed, the body converts ALA to EPA and DHA, the two kinds of omega-3 fatty acids that can be more readily harnessed and used by the body. Epidemiological studies show that people in Western Countries consume a diet rich in Omega-6, therefore resulting in a disruption of the bodies’ Omega-6/Omega-3 balance. On average, American diets are up to 25 times higher in omega-6s than omega-3s. Scientists attribute an unbalanced diet of Omega-3 and Omega-6 to an increase in chronic inflammation and even cancer. Omega-3s, mostly DHA and EPA, share strong anti-inflammatory properties that function by blocking various signaling pathways in the cell. Omega-3s may enhance cardiovascular health, lower triglycerides, glucose metabolism and regulate immune cells. Researchers demonstrate that Omega-3s have catabolic and anabolic effects.

Omega-3s and fat loss

Supplementing the athlete’s diet with Omega-3s result in an increase rate of fat loss compared to controls who did not take Omega-3s. A bit confusing. How can you eat fat to lose fat? Physiologically, there are several possible mechanisms by which addition of Omega-3s to the athlete’s diet can result in fat loss. Studies show that Omega-3s can act as appetite suppressants by reducing insulin resistance and affecting the body’s tolerance to glucose. Remember, reducing your insulin levels also means that your body’s preferred fuel becomes fat. Further biochemical studies published a correlation between increased Omega-3s consumption and fat oxidation, or fat loss. Another research group reported that Omega-3s have an effect on hemodynamics. Results from that study illustrate increased blood flow to muscles during exercise with increased Omega-3 consumption which also again increases fat loss.

Omega-3s and muscle hypertrophy

Loss of muscle is a problem athletes and older individuals face. As previously mentioned, dietary Omega-3s have anabolic properties and can contribute to muscle hypertrophy. The anabolic effects of Omega-3s are noted particularly when ingested in combination with high-protein meals by athletes following a fasting regimen (Intermittent fasting, for example)/post hypoinsulinemia. Omega-3s stimulate muscle protein synthesis (MPS), which may be useful not only for athletes, but also for the prevention and treatment of sarcopenia, or muscle loss associated with aging. Reports of increased anabolic biomarkers expression in response to Omega-3 supplementations, confirm the importance of Omega-3s in muscle hypertrophy. Interestingly, the anabolic biomarkers that were affected by Omega-3s supplementation were the same biomarkers stimulated in response to weight training (Rheb/vps34 expression). A study measuring Leucine resistance (marker of muscle loss/related to aging) shows a decrease in Leucine resistance in response to Omega-3 consumption, therefore suggesting an increase in protein synthesis. Interestingly, muscle protein synthesis rate was increased by ~50%-120% post omega-3 supplementation. That same group reported an increase in the total anabolic signaling pathway (mTOR) in response to Omega-3 consumption post-fasting.

Where can you get Omega-3s from?

Omega-3 fatty acids can be commonly found in fatty fish (salmon, halibut, tuna, sardines, and herring), flaxseeds, pumpkin seeds, and walnuts.

How much Omega-3s do Athletes need?

The needs are tailored individually but range from 1.5g to 3g of Omega-3s/day. Make sure the omega-3 supplement you purchase has about 120mg of EPA and 180mg DHA on the label, a total of 300 mg/capsule. In that case, you will be needing 2 capsules with each meal or about 10 a day. Seems a lot? If you eat a diet rich in fatty fish such as salmon, you would not need to increase your omega-3s intake.

References

Omega-3 Fatty Acids EPA and DHA: Health Benefits Throughout Life. Adv Nutr.2012
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids augment the muscle protein anabolic response to hyperinsulinaemia–hyperaminoacidaemia in healthy young and middle-aged men and women. Clinical Science. 2011
Fish oil prevents insulin resistance induced by high-fat feeding in rats. Science. 1987
Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids regulate bovine whole-body protein metabolism by promoting muscle insulin signalling to the Akt-mTOR-S6K1 pathway and insulin sensitivity. J. Physiol. 2007 1
Dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation increases the rate of muscle protein synthesis in older adults: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011

BIO

Chantal Charo is an Assistant Professor of Physiology, a Sports Nutritionist and a Medical Writer from Miami, FL. Her interdisciplinary biomedical research particularly focuses on gastrointestinal diseases, such as diabetes, pancreatic cancer and the role of insulin resistance in pathophysiology. Dr. Charo is also involved in numerous clinical trial in her field and has most recently completed a trial on NSAIDs and pancreatic diseases. Chantal earned her Ph.Ds. in Biomedical Sciences and Cancer Biology from the prestigious University of Texas Houston and the UT MD Anderson Cancer Center. As sports nutritionist Dr. Charo has trained with leading supplement companies across the United States by researching ways to target insulin resistance and hormonal balance in women, as well as the Euthyroid Sick syndrome and the female athlete. Chantal hosts a medical segment on a local daily talk show which aims at promoting awareness to women and combating health illiteracy. In support of her research, Chantal has received fellowships from National Cancer Institute, the National Institute of Health and more. She is a Fellow of the American Association of Cancer Researchers, the American Pancreatic Association and the American Breast Cancer Association, and was the recipient for many outstanding scientist awards. The link to Dr. Charo’s sports nutrition clinic is www.facebook.com/sportsnutritionclinic

Essential Fats – No, They’re Not All Equal

by Brad Dieter, MS, CISSN, CSCS.

Protein and fat are the two obligatory substrates people have to consume in order to sustain life, while carbohydrates are not. In layman’s terms, you have to eat fat and protein to live, while carbohydrates are just extra, you really do not need them to survive. If fat is entirely excluded from the diet of humans, a condition develops that is characterized by retarded growth, dermatitis, kidney lesions, and early death¹.

Research has shown that these conditions are reverse when subjects consumed certain unsaturated fatty acids, namely the Omega-3 and Omega-6 PUFA’s. These specific PUFA’s cannot be synthesized in the human body and must be acquired in our diet, thus, these are the essential fatty acids (EFA’s). The names of these PUFA’s are linoleic acid (LA), an Omega-6, and alpha linolenic acid (ALA), an Omega-3. From these two PUFA’s our body can manufacture the subsequent compounds necessary for our bodies to properly function. . . . at least that is what science says, but we will see in a later post why LA and ALA may not be the effective way to obtain the “essential” fats that we need to include in our diet.

What Exactly Do These “Essential Fats” Do?

The main role EFA’s play in the body are for formation of cell membranes and are precursors to a group compounds known as Eicosanoids. The Eicosanoids are long (20 carbons in length), highly unsaturated fatty acids and form prostaglandins (PG’s), thromboxanes (TBX’s), and leukotrienes (LK’s). Ok, sorry for the big scientific terms and I will try and limit using them, but these are big time players in maintaing your body. The PG’s, TBX’s and LK’s are involved in some important physiological processes, including: 1) lowering blood pressure, 2) blood platelet aggregation (clotting), 3) immune response and regulation, 4) smooth muscle contraction (i.e. the muscles involved in breathing, blood vessels, and your digestive system), and 5) they act as signals all over the body.

I know what you are thinking, Holy Smokes, I did not know fats did all those things for you. Now compare the roles the many different roles that fats play in the human body when you compare it to the myopic role of carbohydrates. That is absolutely amazing if you ask me, but then again I am a huge nerd and love this stuff.

It’s pretty apparent that Omega-3 and Omega-6 EFA’s are pretty darn important… but are they equal? Well, lets find out.

Omega-3 Vs. Omega-6

Omega-3 EFA’s differ from Omega-6 EFA’s in that their first double carbon bond occurs at the location of the 3^rd carbon from the methyl end of the chain where in the Omega-6 , EFA’s, that first bond occurs at the 6^th carbon. Big nerd terms aside, this just means that they play quite different roles in the body.

How different you ask? Well to answer that as simply as possible, the end products of Omega-3 EFA’s are generally considered anti-inflammatory and are reported to have hypolipidemic (lowering lipids/fat) and antithrombotic (preventing excess clotting) effects, while Omega-6 EFA’s are considered pro-inflammatory in nature. Here is a great diagram that shows you the end products of the Omega-6′s and the Omega’s.

Clearly, the EFA’s are not equal, they play complementary roles to each other. Just like everything else in the world, too much of one, and not enough of the other has some serious consequences. . . In the case of the EFA’s, too much Omega-6 increases inflammation.

INFLAMMATION

Ok, so you eat too much Omega-6 EFAs and have a little more inflammation than you should… Who cares is probably what you are thinking. Well, I care, and I care a lot. The whole reason I write this blog, went to grad school, and spend my free time learning about the human body is because I care about all of you and your health!

That being said, what is the big deal? Inflammation is a normal physiological response that is crucial to maintaining health; however excess inflammation, or uncontrolled inflammation leads to impaired function, and disease². Inflammation is a critical component in the development of cardiovascular disease, THE NUMBER ONE KILLER IN THE WORLD.

Why is cardiovascular disease so rampant? Well I believe a large part of it has to do with the inflammatory nature of the standard western diet, and both epidemiological studies and clinical studies can substantiate this belief. This is where we can really push the “paleo”/ evolutionary view on nutrition.

Quick recap, Omega-6 EFA’s are generally pro-inflammatory while Omega-3 EFA’s are generally anti-inflammatory in nature. The standard Western Diet has a Omega-6:Omega-3 ratio of anywhere from 10:1 to upwards of 25:1, where our Paleolithic ancestors had a diet that was closer to 1:1. . . . Do you see the stark differences?

The average American consumes a diet that promotes an inflammatory state 10-25 times great than an anti-inflammatory state. Holy COW, no wonder we all drop dead of diseases linked to inflammation. Why is the Omega-6: Omega-3 ratio so out of control? Here is a list of foods high in Omega 6 and Omega 3 and you can see what we eat a lot of and what we eat a little of.

Omega 6

Omega 3

Corn oil

Safflower Oil

Soybean Oil

Almonds

Cashews

Sunflower Seeds

Marine Algae

Salmon

Mackerel

Sardines

Grass-fed meat

Flax Seed

Are you beginning to see why the whole “Fish Oil” movement has taken hold in the past decade? Fish oil supplements are high in Omega-3 and virtually void of any omega-6, which helps us balance out the Omega-3:Omega 6 ratio. I am not generally a big supplementation person, but in light of these facts and the state of the western diet, I definitely suggest people take fish oil supplements high in DHA and EPA. In fact, there have been a number of clinical trials assessing the benefits of dietary supplementation with fish oils in several inflammatory and autoimmune diseases in humans, including rheumatoid arthritis³.

Think about how much you just learned in about 10 minutes of dedicated reading! Thanks for tuning in this week, I am excited about the next post where we tackle another amazing fat, CHOLESTEROL! I am also going to come back to the EFA’s and explain why EPA and DHA are so essential and why just eating ALA (remember the basic precursor to EPA and DHA) doesn’t quite cut it.

References

1) Gropper, S. S., Smith, J. L., & Groff, J. L. (2005). Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

2. Chiang, Y., Haddad, E., Rajaram, S., Shavlik, D., & Sabate, J. (2012). The effect of dietary walnuts compared to fatty fish on eicosanoids, cytokines, soluble endothelial adhesion molecules and lymphocyte subsets: a randomized, controlled crossover trial. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids , 87, 111-117.

3) Simopoulos, A. (2002). Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. Journal of the American College of Nutrition , 21 (6), 495-505.

BIO – Brad is a Ph.D. student at the University of Idaho in Exercise Science. He received his M.S. degree in biomechanics from the University of Idaho and is a Certified Sports Nutritionist (CISSN) and a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS). He has experience as a nutrition and fitness consultant, a collegiate strength coach, and a trauma representative in the orthopedic industry. Outside of school research, his research interests are in developing a better understanding of the nutrition, health, and performance axis and real world application of that knowledge.

Omega 3 Fats and Traumatic Brain Injury

By Jennifer Broder RD LD/N CISSN CSSD and Anastasia Kyriakopoulos.

Omega 3 fats have been getting much attention over the years for the lengthy list of proven and theorized benefits. Most attention is derived from the benefit and protective effects of cardiovascular, cognitive function, and ocular health (1) (2). In athletic performance, it has been recently shown to decrease muscle fatigue and soreness (3) (4). There is another possible role of omega 3 fatty acids that has been on the minds of National Football League: The possible use of Omega 3 Fatty acids in concussion management and rehabilitation protocol.

Concussion management has also evolved rapidly over the past 10 years primarily based in the neuroscience research. Researchers are noting a significant correlation between Omega 3’s DHA and the treatment for TBI (traumatic brain injury) and concussions. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) makes up 97% of the human brains fatty acid content (5). In fact the brain will hang on to its DHA while other organs are depleted possibly as a survival mechanism. This is worth noting as we explore the theories proposed for EPA and DHA’s role in treatment of traumatic brain injuries, hence concussions.

We know there are a cascade of events that take place upon impact and continuing afterwards. If not dealt with, reported or even recognized (very common as one does not always lose consciousness with a concussion) this can compromise the brains integrity greatly. In an event of a concussion axonal injury can occur. The axons in the brain provide a bridge for signals to be received from cell to cell. When injured a cascade of events such as increase in free radicals, damage to cell membranes and synapses, increased levels of glutamate and intracellular calcium occurs leading to further degradation of the brains function. DHA is the precursor to Neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1) which maintains homeostasis and suppresses oxidative stress after injury (5). It is theorized that DHA can play a role in stopping or reducing this cascade of events by decreasing axonal injury, acting as an antioxidant and aiding in cell energy and repair. In fact, NPD1 may aid in altering gene expression from pro-inflammatory to anti-inflammatory. One may then consider the nutritional epigenetic impact that daily EPA DHA consumption and supplementation can have on gene expression therefore promoting an anti inflammatory protective response following a concussion or TBI.

One important study done on 40 adult male rats who received 30 days of supplementation of DHA in the form of algae immediately post brain injury had a significant reduction in axonal injury (5). Another study done with the same injury model with fish oil rich in both EPA and DHA revealed a similar outcome as there was also a reduction in the number of injured axons (5). Lastly, a study was done to test the effects of DHA supplementation prior to injury. The rats were supplemented with DHA 30 days prior to injury, resulting in higher levels of DHA in the brain as well as a reduction in axonal injury (5). We can also conclude from the cardiovascular, cognitive, and ocular health research that there is a great likely hood of EPA & DHA supplementation can promotes an anti inflammatory effect, optimize antioxidant activity and aid in cell homeostasis(6)(7). This then may be the nutritional tool that can be applied in concussion management.

So the question is why are we not enforcing every contact sport to have EPA DHA supplements and consume vast quantities of fish on the sidelines with their Gatorade? Well, the research is promising but there are still more questions and concrete guidelines to be established. We know EPA and DHA play these roles in treatment and prevention in concussions and TBI but the exact mechanisms, genetic differences, and individual threshold of injury are still not completely understood. Furthermore, there is still no consensus on the optimal dosages and even food intake recommendation across the health and supplement industry.

So, we as healthcare practitioners are faced with the question. Food or Supplementation to achieve possible prevention or treatment of concussions and TBI? Hmmmmm…..what to do? Our thoughts are food AND supplementation for prevention and treatment. “The FDA has ruled that intakes of up to 3 g/d of marine omega-3 fatty acids are GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) for inclusion in the diet” (10). Increasing consumption of healthy fatty fishes should be our recommendations at least 3-4x week. Realistically, most people do not consume these sources on a daily basis; supplementation of EPA and DHA daily can be our patient’s back up plan. We do believe consistency of supplementation is key to reaching adequate levels of EPA and DHA in the body while consuming foods rich in Omega 3 fatty acids.

For supplementation practices, one must consider the type of fish oil, the molecular form, and the manufacturing practices and standards to provide athletes safe, effective, and quality products. We have found in practice that Omega 3 supplements are best in concentrated dosages for increased compliance, the triglyceride (TG) form is far superior to the synthetic ethyl ester (EE) form because of the increased absorption and assimilation, and lastly all companies are not alike and thorough research of companies testing and protocols should be evaluated closely.

For optimal food recommendations, always remember Essential Fatty acids are “Yes!” essential because we humans have the inability to synthesize them in the body. Therefore; we must obtain them in our diet from animal and plant species that can synthesize such fats (8). It is important to note the plant sources rich in ALA are only at a ~15% conversion rate to the much needed family of eicosanoids; EPA & DHA which are the anti-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic, anti-arrhythmic, and vasodilators(8)(9).

The current ratio of the typical Western diet is 20:1 containing more of the Omega 6s that are pro-inflammatory and less of the beneficial omega 3 fatty acids of EPA and DHA(8). The healthy ratio of EPA and DHA recommended by the Institute of Medicine is 7:1 (8). To optimize our American diets we must increase food rich in omega 3 fatty acids and off set this poor ratio. Fatty fish like wild caught salmon, herring, and sardines are excellent source of omega 3 fatty acids. Below are some of the richer sources of EPA and DHA (9). Note the quantity needed to reach therapeutic dosages by food alone.

Fish	Grams of EPA and DHA per 3oz serving edible portion	Amount Required in Ounces to Provide ~1 gram of EPA/DHA per day
Catfish, wild	0.2 g	15 oz
Cod, Atlantic	0.24 g	12.5 oz
Tuna, light in water	0.26 g	12 oz
Flounder/Sole	0.42g	7oz
Tuna, white in water	0.73 g	4 oz
Mackerel	0.34-1.57 g	2-8.5 oz
Salmon, Atlantic, wild	0.9-1.56 g	2-3.5 oz
Sardines	0.98-1.70 g	2-3 oz
Herring, Pacific	1.81 g	1.5 oz

Omega 3 Fatty Acids Supplementation	EPA and DHA per capsule or Liquid dosage	Amount Needed in Capsules or in Ounces to Provide ~3 gram of EPA/DHA per day
Nordic Naturals- ProOmega D Xtra	3g per 1 tsp	1 tsp
Original Nutritionals –Functional O3	1.375g per 1 tsp	3 tsp
Nordic Naturals- Ultimate Omega	0.60 per soft gel capsule	5 capsules
Orthomolecular-OrthoMega	0.72g per soft gel capsule	5 capsules

TAKE HOME MESSAGE

Therapeutic Amounts in the ranges of 2000mg and above daily are possibly beneficial for prevention to off set the ratio of Omega 6:3 in our “SAD” American diet and to possibly treat our sports and recreation related concussions in our children and adults. The research so far has shown us the possibility that one day Omega 3 fatty Acids; specifically EPA & DHA could be incorporated into concussion protocol. We do believe that the consistent consumption of these ESSENTIAL Omega 3 Fatty Acids throughout the lifecycle could be the most important in the possible prevention and management of concussions & TBI. More studies are needed to unfold the true potential of these crucial fatty acids and appropriate individual dosages. We definitely suggest athletes to consume more omega 3 rich foods BUT optimal dosing via supplementation is needed to meet the therapeutic demands of prevention and treatment. In conclusion, the maintenance of a balanced diet rich in Omega 3s and/or supplementation is ESSENTIAL for OPTIMAL HEALTH and WELLNESS!

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Jennifer Broder RD LD/N CISSN CSSD is the Medical Nutrition Director of www.themedicalnutritioncenter.com . The Medical Nutrition Center is the 1^st science based functional nutrition practice focused on health & lifestyle changes to prevent, treat, or reduce your health risks for a lifetime. Jennifer has been well known as www.askthenutritionist.com for the past 16+ years. She specializes in evidenced-based research and promotion of nutritional science focused on disease prevention and management, eating disorders, bariatric surgery, weight management, wellness, & sports nutrition.

Anastasia Kyriakopoulos is a University of Florida graduate with a Bachelor’s degree in Food Science and Human Nutrition. She is currently completing her Dietetic Internship Program through Sodexo at The Medical Nutrition Center in Tampa, FL. Her areas of interest are weight management and sports nutrition.

References

Wu A, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F., “Docosahexanoic Acid Dietary Supplementation Enhances the Effects of Exercise on Synaptic Plasticity and Congnition.” Neuroscience 2008; 155(3):751-9.
Chytrova G, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F., “Exercise Contributes to the Effects of DHA Dietary Supplementation by Acting on Membrane-Related Synaptic Systems.” Brain Research 2009.
Jouris K, McDaniel J, Weiss E., “The Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on the Inflammatory Response to Eccentric Strength Exercise.” Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 2011; 10: 432-438.
SpectraCell Laboratories “Nutritional Considerations of Sports Medicine”. 2011. www.spectracell.com
Bailes J, Mills J., “Docosahexanoic Acid Reduces Traumatic Axonal Injury in a Rodent Head Injury Model.” Journal of Nuerotrauma. 2010; 27:1617-1626.
Guilliams T., “The Use of Fish Oil Supplements in Clinical Practice: A Review”. Journal of the American Nutraceutical Association. 2005; 8(1).
Gomez-Pinilla F, Ying Z., “Differential Effects of Exercise and Dietary Docosahexaenoic Acid on Molecular Systems Associated with Control of Allostasis in the Hypothalamus and Hippocampus.” Neuroscience 2010; 168(1): 130-7.
Antonio J, Kalman D, Stout J, Greenwood M, Willoughby D, Haff G., Essentials of Sports Nutrition and Supplements. 2008;268-270.
Kris-Etherton P, William H, Appel L., “Fish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Disease.” Journal of The American Heart Association. 2002; 106:2747-2757.

Fish Oil for Muscle Growth

by Monica Mollica

Most supplements are used for one specific outcome, for example fat loss, muscle growth or general health promotion. However, there are a few exceptions. Fish oil is one of them.

We all know about the cardiovascular health benefits of fish oil, and in a previous article I covered the fat loss effect of fish oil. Now let’s take a look at the potential application of fish oil for those of us who are interested in muscle growth…

Anti-catabolic effects of fish oil

Muscle protein undergoes a continuous process of synthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism). In a healthy state, the anabolic and catabolic processes are balanced to maintain stability of or even increase muscle mass (as is observed with resistance training combined with proper nutrition).

Catabolism of muscle tissue is common in both clinical states (for example diabetes, renal failure, trauma and cancer) and during diet-induced weight loss and other stress conditions ^1-6. During these catabolic states, muscle protein degradation exceeds muscle protein synthesis, which results in muscle loss and weakness.

Muscle protein catabolism is primarily caused by the ubiquitin-proteasome system ³ ^6-11. It is here fish oil enters the picture, since its fatty acid EPA significantly decreases the activity of the muscle protein catabolic (ubiquitin-proteasome) system ² ⁴ ⁵ ^12-16.

Another mechanism by which fish oil exerts its anti-catabolic effect is by reducing cortisol levels ¹⁷ ¹⁸. As we all know, cortisol breaks down muscle tissue ¹⁹ and has a host of other detrimental effects when present at chronically elevated levels (which is a topic in its own right), so this is a beneficial effect of fish oil beyond anti-catabolism.

Anabolic effects of fish oil

What makes fish oil especially interesting is that it seems to promote muscle growth by not only inhibiting muscle catabolism, but also by stimulating muscle anabolism. Recent studies showed that supplementing for 8 weeks with 4 g per day of fish oil concentrate providing a daily dose of 1.86 g EPA and 1.5 g DHA, significantly increases the anabolic response of muscle protein synthesis to amino acids and insulin ²⁰. The augmented anabolic response to amino acids and insulin was shown to be due to an increased activation of the mTOR/p70S6K signalling pathway, which is considered an integral control point for muscle protein anabolism ²¹ and muscle cell growth ^22-25.

Other mechanisms probably contribute as well. The same study showed that the fish oil supplementation in 25-45 year old healthy subjects doubled the proportion of EPA, DPA (another less talked about omega-3 fatty acid) and DHA in muscle cell membranes, at the expense of omega-6 fatty acids and mono-unsaturated fatty acids, with no change in saturated fatty acid) concentrations ²⁰. Thus, it is also possible that fish oil supplementation influences anabolic signalling cascades by affecting membrane lipid composition and/or fluidity ^26-29.

Are you older than 45 yr? Don’t fret, you will still benefit from the muscle anabolic effects of fish oil. The same research team conducted another study, using an identical research protocol (1.86 g EPA and 1.5 g DHA for 8 weeks), in healthy elderly subjects over 65 years (mean age 71 years). The results were the same as in the younger subjects; the fish oil supplementation significantly increased the muscle protein synthetic response to amino acids and insulin ³⁰. Thus, fish oil seems to attenuate the anabolic resistance associated with old age ^31-33. The researchers were so impressed with the response that they concluded fish oil can be useful for both prevention and treatment of sarcopenia ³⁰.

In both of these studies, muscle mass was not measured because the interventions only lasted for 8 weeks. However, taking into consideration that changes in muscle protein metabolism precede corresponding changes in muscle mass ^34-36, these results are promising. It is going to be interesting to see longer term studies that measure actual fish oil induced gains in muscle mass, and also how the anabolic response to fish oil interacts with resistance training.

Wrap up

Whether you’re looking to build muscle or prevent loss of muscle during a diet, evidence supports the addition of fish oil to your supplement regimen. Fish oil, and especially EPA, not only counteracts the detrimental loss of muscle mass that we see in stressful and catabolic states, but also boosts the anabolic response to nutritional stimuli in healthy muscle from both young, middle-age and older adults. Thus, it beneficially affects both the catabolic and anabolic sides of the muscle protein balance equation.

The studies to date used a fish oil dose corresponding to 1.86 g EPA and 1.5 g DHA (which can be considered to be a medium high dose). We don’t know yet if a higher or lower dose would have a greater/smaller effect, but this dose is a good guideline to start with.

References:

1. Bailey JL, Wang X, Price SR. The balance between glucocorticoids and insulin regulates muscle proteolysis via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1999;25(4-6):220-3.

2. Ross JA, Moses AG, Fearon KC. The anti-catabolic effects of n-3 fatty acids. Current opinion in clinical nutrition and metabolic care 1999;2(3):219-26.

3. Ventadour S, Attaix D. Mechanisms of skeletal muscle atrophy. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2006;18(6):631-5.

4. Whitehouse AS, Smith HJ, Drake JL, Tisdale MJ. Mechanism of attenuation of skeletal muscle protein catabolism in cancer cachexia by eicosapentaenoic acid. Cancer Res 2001;61(9):3604-9.

5. Whitehouse AS, Tisdale MJ. Downregulation of ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis by eicosapentaenoic acid in acute starvation. Biochemical and biophysical research communications 2001;285(3):598-602.

6. Wing SS, Goldberg AL. Glucocorticoids activate the ATP-ubiquitin-dependent proteolytic system in skeletal muscle during fasting. The American journal of physiology 1993;264(4 Pt 1):E668-76.

7. Attaix D, Aurousseau E, Combaret L, Kee A, Larbaud D, Ralliere C, et al. Ubiquitin-proteasome-dependent proteolysis in skeletal muscle. Reprod Nutr Dev 1998;38(2):153-65.

8. Attaix D, Ventadour S, Codran A, Bechet D, Taillandier D, Combaret L. The ubiquitin-proteasome system and skeletal muscle wasting. Essays Biochem 2005;41:173-86.

9. Jagoe RT, Goldberg AL. What do we really know about the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in muscle atrophy? Current opinion in clinical nutrition and metabolic care 2001;4(3):183-90.

10. Mitch WE, Goldberg AL. Mechanisms of muscle wasting. The role of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. The New England journal of medicine 1996;335(25):1897-905.

11. Tisdale MJ. The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway as a therapeutic target for muscle wasting. J Support Oncol 2005;3(3):209-17.

12. Fearon KC, Von Meyenfeldt MF, Moses AG, Van Geenen R, Roy A, Gouma DJ, et al. Effect of a protein and energy dense N-3 fatty acid enriched oral supplement on loss of weight and lean tissue in cancer cachexia: a randomised double blind trial. Gut 2003;52(10):1479-86.

13. Smith HJ, Greenberg NA, Tisdale MJ. Effect of eicosapentaenoic acid, protein and amino acids on protein synthesis and degradation in skeletal muscle of cachectic mice. British journal of cancer 2004;91(2):408-12.

14. Smith HJ, Khal J, Tisdale MJ. Downregulation of ubiquitin-dependent protein degradation in murine myotubes during hyperthermia by eicosapentaenoic acid. Biochemical and biophysical research communications 2005;332(1):83-8.

15. Smith HJ, Lorite MJ, Tisdale MJ. Effect of a cancer cachectic factor on protein synthesis/degradation in murine C2C12 myoblasts: modulation by eicosapentaenoic acid. Cancer Res 1999;59(21):5507-13.

16. Smith HJ, Tisdale MJ. Induction of apoptosis by a cachectic-factor in murine myotubes and inhibition by eicosapentaenoic acid. Apoptosis 2003;8(2):161-9.

17. Delarue J, Matzinger O, Binnert C, Schneiter P, Chiolero R, Tappy L. Fish oil prevents the adrenal activation elicited by mental stress in healthy men. Diabetes & metabolism 2003;29(3):289-95.

18. Noreen EE, Sass MJ, Crowe ML, Pabon VA, Brandauer J, Averill LK. Effects of supplemental fish oil on resting metabolic rate, body composition, and salivary cortisol in healthy adults. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 2010;7:31.

19. Rooyackers OE, Nair KS. Hormonal regulation of human muscle protein metabolism. Annual review of nutrition 1997;17:457-85.

20. Smith GI, Atherton P, Reeds DN, Mohammed BS, Rankin D, Rennie MJ, et al. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids augment the muscle protein anabolic response to hyperinsulinaemia-hyperaminoacidaemia in healthy young and middle-aged men and women. Clin Sci (Lond) 2011;121(6):267-78.

21. Drummond MJ, Fry CS, Glynn EL, Dreyer HC, Dhanani S, Timmerman KL, et al. Rapamycin administration in humans blocks the contraction-induced increase in skeletal muscle protein synthesis. The Journal of physiology 2009;587(Pt 7):1535-46.

22. Bodine SC, Stitt TN, Gonzalez M, Kline WO, Stover GL, Bauerlein R, et al. Akt/mTOR pathway is a crucial regulator of skeletal muscle hypertrophy and can prevent muscle atrophy in vivo. Nature cell biology 2001;3(11):1014-9.

23. Rommel C, Bodine SC, Clarke BA, Rossman R, Nunez L, Stitt TN, et al. Mediation of IGF-1-induced skeletal myotube hypertrophy by PI(3)K/Akt/mTOR and PI(3)K/Akt/GSK3 pathways. Nature cell biology 2001;3(11):1009-13.

24. Baar K, Esser K. Phosphorylation of p70(S6k) correlates with increased skeletal muscle mass following resistance exercise. The American journal of physiology 1999;276(1 Pt 1):C120-7.

25. O’Neil TK, Duffy LR, Frey JW, Hornberger TA. The role of phosphoinositide 3-kinase and phosphatidic acid in the regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin following eccentric contractions. The Journal of physiology 2009;587(Pt 14):3691-701.

26. Mansilla MC, Banchio CE, de Mendoza D. Signalling pathways controlling fatty acid desaturation. Sub-cellular biochemistry 2008;49:71-99.

27. Stillwell W, Wassall SR. Docosahexaenoic acid: membrane properties of a unique fatty acid. Chemistry and physics of lipids 2003;126(1):1-27.

28. Armstrong VT, Brzustowicz MR, Wassall SR, Jenski LJ, Stillwell W. Rapid flip-flop in polyunsaturated (docosahexaenoate) phospholipid membranes. Archives of biochemistry and biophysics 2003;414(1):74-82.

29. Stillwell W, Shaikh SR, Zerouga M, Siddiqui R, Wassall SR. Docosahexaenoic acid affects cell signaling by altering lipid rafts. Reprod Nutr Dev 2005;45(5):559-79.

30. Smith GI, Atherton P, Reeds DN, Mohammed BS, Rankin D, Rennie MJ, et al. Dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation increases the rate of muscle protein synthesis in older adults: a randomized controlled trial. The American journal of clinical nutrition 2011;93(2):402-12.

31. Cuthbertson D, Smith K, Babraj J, Leese G, Waddell T, Atherton P, et al. Anabolic signaling deficits underlie amino acid resistance of wasting, aging muscle. The FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 2005;19(3):422-4.

32. Guillet C, Prod’homme M, Balage M, Gachon P, Giraudet C, Morin L, et al. Impaired anabolic response of muscle protein synthesis is associated with S6K1 dysregulation in elderly humans. The FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 2004;18(13):1586-7.

33. Rasmussen BB, Fujita S, Wolfe RR, Mittendorfer B, Roy M, Rowe VL, et al. Insulin resistance of muscle protein metabolism in aging. The FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 2006;20(6):768-9.

34. Hawley JA, Tipton KD, Millard-Stafford ML. Promoting training adaptations through nutritional interventions. Journal of sports sciences 2006;24(7):709-21.

35. Hawley JA, Burke LM, Phillips SM, Spriet LL. Nutritional modulation of training-induced skeletal muscle adaptations. J Appl Physiol 2011;110(3):834-45.

36. Rennie MJ, Wackerhage H, Spangenburg EE, Booth FW. Control of the size of the human muscle mass. Annual review of physiology 2004;66:799-828.

About the Author

Monica Mollica

Health Journalist, Nutrition / Diet Consultant & Personal Trainer

BSc and MSc in Nutrition from the University of Stockholm

ISSA Certified Personal Trainer

Website: www.trainergize.com

Email: monica@trainergize.com

Fish or Flax? Which Fat Should You Consume?

By Monica Mollica. While most people are aware of the health benefits of omegs-3 fat, there is still a lot of confusion regarding the different omega-3 fatty acids. It is important to clear this out because not all omega-3 fatty acids are of equal effectiveness.

The major sources of omegs-3 fats are fish oil and the cheaper flax oil. While they are both omega-3 oils, they provide different omega-3 fatty acids. Flax oil is a source of the parent omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), while fish oil is a source of the longer chain omega-3 fatty acids EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). The important distinction lies in the fact that it is EPA and DHA which are the “active” omega-3 fatty acids that give rise to the health benefits ascribed to omega-3 fats, especially fat loss, cardiovascular health and brain functioning ^1-18.

While our bodies can convert ALA to EPA and DHA in the body, this conversion is extremely inefficient ^19-25. It has been shown that the conversionof ALA to EPA is only between 0.3% and 8%, while the conversion of ALA to DHA is often undetectable in men ^21-24. Conversionof ALA to long-chain n–3 fatty acids appears is more efficient in women: up to 21% of consumed ALA is converted to EPA and up to9% is converted to DHA ^{19, 25}. Even so, it is not enough to get an effective dose of EPA and DHA (2-3 g), which can only be obtained by consuming fish or supplementing with fish oil or algae oil. Algae oil is a vegetable source of DHA, while fish oil contains both EPA and DHA.

Apart from the low conversion efficiency of ALA to EPA and DHA, another concern with ALA is that it might cause prostate cancer ^{26, 27}. This is another reason to supplement with fish oil instead of flax oil.

Therefore, to ensure adequate amounts of the active omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA, which is around 2-3 g, intake of these fatty acids via fatty fish and/or fish oil and algae oil is recommended, since we cannot rely on our body’s conversion of ALA.

References (As they say on ‘CSI,’ “Just Follow the Data”).

1. Couet C, Delarue J, Ritz P, Antoine JM, Lamisse F. Effect of dietary fish oil on body fat mass and basal fat oxidation in healthy adults. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. Aug 1997;21(8):637-643.

2. Delarue J, Couet C, Cohen R, Brechot JF, Antoine JM, Lamisse F. Effects of fish oil on metabolic responses to oral fructose and glucose loads in healthy humans. Am J Physiol. Feb 1996;270(2 Pt 1):E353-362.

3. Huffman DM, Michaelson JL, Thomas TR. Chronic supplementation with fish oil increases fat oxidation during exercise in young men. JEPonline. 2004;7(1):48-56.

4. Breslow JL. n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. Jun 2006;83(6 Suppl):1477S-1482S.

5. Connor WE. Importance of n-3 fatty acids in health and disease. Am J Clin Nutr. Jan 2000;71(1 Suppl):171S-175S.

6. FDA. Qualified Health Claim for Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) September 8, 2004 2004.

7. O’Keefe JH, Jr., Harris WS. From Inuit to implementation: omega-3 fatty acids come of age. Mayo Clin Proc. Jun 2000;75(6):607-614.

8. O’Keefe JH, Harris WS. Omega-3 fatty acids: time for clinical implementation? Am J Cardiol. May 15 2000;85(10):1239-1241.

9. Bourre JM. Roles of unsaturated fatty acids (especially omega-3 fatty acids) in the brain at various ages and during ageing. J Nutr Health Aging. 2004;8(3):163-174.

10. Dangour AD, Clemens F, Elbourne D, et al. A randomised controlled trial investigating the effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on cognitive and retinal function in cognitively healthy older people: the Older People And n-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (OPAL) study protocol [ISRCTN72331636]. Nutr J. 2006;5:20.

11. Horrobin DF. A new category of psychotropic drugs: neuroactive lipids as exemplified by ethyl eicosapentaenoate (E-E). Prog Drug Res. 2002;59:171-199.

12. Johnson EJ, Schaefer EJ. Potential role of dietary n-3 fatty acids in the prevention of dementia and macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr. Jun 2006;83(6 Suppl):1494S-1498S.

13. Kidd PM. Omega-3 DHA and EPA for cognition, behavior, and mood: clinical findings and structural-functional synergies with cell membrane phospholipids. Altern Med Rev. Sep 2007;12(3):207-227.

14. Locke CA, Stoll AL. Omega-3 fatty acids in major depression. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2001;89:173-185.

15. Logan AC. Neurobehavioral aspects of omega-3 fatty acids: possible mechanisms and therapeutic value in major depression. Altern Med Rev. Nov 2003;8(4):410-425.

16. Logan AC. Omega-3 fatty acids and major depression: a primer for the mental health professional. Lipids Health Dis. Nov 9 2004;3:25.

17. Puri BK, Counsell SJ, Richardson AJ, Horrobin DF. Eicosapentaenoic acid in treatment-resistant depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. Jan 2002;59(1):91-92.

18. Ross BM, Seguin J, Sieswerda LE. Omega-3 fatty acids as treatments for mental illness: which disorder and which fatty acid? Lipids Health Dis. 2007;6:21.

19. Burdge G. Alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in men and women: nutritional and biological implications. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. Mar 2004;7(2):137-144.

20. Pawlosky RJ, Hibbeln JR, Novotny JA, Salem N, Jr. Physiological compartmental analysis of alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in adult humans. J Lipid Res. Aug 2001;42(8):1257-1265.

21. Burdge GC, Finnegan YE, Minihane AM, Williams CM, Wootton SA. Effect of altered dietary n-3 fatty acid intake upon plasma lipid fatty acid composition, conversion of [13C]alpha-linolenic acid to longer-chain fatty acids and partitioning towards beta-oxidation in older men. Br J Nutr. Aug 2003;90(2):311-321.

22. Burdge GC, Jones AE, Wootton SA. Eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids are the principal products of alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in young men*. Br J Nutr. Oct 2002;88(4):355-363.

23. Emken EA, Adlof RO, Gulley RM. Dietary linoleic acid influences desaturation and acylation of deuterium-labeled linoleic and linolenic acids in young adult males. Biochim Biophys Acta. Aug 4 1994;1213(3):277-288.

24. Hussein N, Ah-Sing E, Wilkinson P, Leach C, Griffin BA, Millward DJ. Long-chain conversion of [13C]linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid in response to marked changes in their dietary intake in men. J Lipid Res. Feb 2005;46(2):269-280.

25. Burdge GC, Wootton SA. Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in young women. Br J Nutr. Oct 2002;88(4):411-420.

26. Attar-Bashi NM, Frauman AG, Sinclair AJ. Alpha-linolenic acid and the risk of prostate cancer. What is the evidence? J Urol. Apr 2004;171(4):1402-1407.

27. Brouwer IA, Katan MB, Zock PL. Dietary alpha-linolenic acid is associated with reduced risk of fatal coronary heart disease, but increased prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis. J Nutr. Apr 2004;134(4):919-922.

About Monica Mollica > www.trainergize.com

Monica Mollica has a Bachelor’s and Master’s degree in Nutrition from the University of Stockholm, Sweden, and is an ISSA Certified Personal Trainer. She works a dietary consultant, health journalist and writer for www.BrinkZone.com, and is also a web designer and videographer; Monica has admired and been fascinated by muscular and sculptured strong athletic bodies since childhood, and discovered bodybuilding as an early teenager. Realizing the importance of nutrition for maximal results in the gym, she went for a major in Nutrition at the University. During her years at the University she was a regular contributor to the Swedish bodybuilding magazine BODY, and she has published the book (in Swedish) “Functional Foods for Health and Energy Balance”, and authored several book chapters in Swedish publications. It was her insatiable thirst for knowledge and scientific research in the area of bodybuilding and health that brought her to the US. She has completed one semester at the PhD-program “Exercise, Nutrition and Preventive Health” at Baylor University Texas, at the department of Health Human Performance and Recreation, and worked as an ISSA certified personal trainer. Today, Monica is sharing her solid experience by doing dietary consultations and writing about topics related to bodybuilding, fitness, health and anti-aging.

Fish Oil – The Real Deal Fat Fighter

by Monica Mollica MSc. (Editor’s note: Take at least ~1600 mg EPA and ~800 mg DHA daily! Fish oil should be in the top 3 of everyone’s daily supplement).

Fish oil is well known for its beneficial cardiovascular and cardiac health effects. In 2004 FDA approved a prescription fish oil preparation for treatment of high blood triglycerides (hypertriglyceridemia) ¹. However, recently several studies have shown that fish oil also has other beneficial effects, which might appeal more to the younger population, and especially to fitness and bodybuilding enthusiasts. One of these effects is fat loss.

Fish Oil Induced Fat Loss

In the 80s early 90s, several animal studies showed that fish oil reduces body fat ^2-5 and weight gain ^6-9, and limits adipose tissue expansion ^10-12. These effects have been seen during both a decreased ³ ⁷, constant ⁵ or even increased energy intakes ⁶. This indicates that the fatty acids in fish oil, notably EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), have an effect on the partitioning of fat between oxidation (fat burning) and storage in the body.

Mechanism – how does it work?

In search for the mechanisms behind fish oil induced fat loss, it has been found that fish oil exerts favorable metabolic effects by modulating gene expression (which is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is converted into protein)² ^13-26. While we inherit our genes (or blueprints) from our parents, what determines the way in which our blueprints are interpreted is largely dictated by a collection of environmental factors. The nutrients we consume are among the most influential of these environmental factors ²⁷ ²⁸. One dietary constituent that has a strong influence on our genetic makeup is dietary fat ² ¹³ ¹⁴ ^16-19 ^21-23 ²⁵ ²⁹. Fatty acids of dietary fat not only influences hormonal signaling events, but also have a very strong direct influence on the molecular events that govern gene expression.

More specifically, it has been shown that the fatty acids EPA and DHA from fish oil (by affecting gene expression) inhibit the activities of fat synthesizing (lipogenic) enzymes ^30-37, while at the same time stimulating the activities of key enzymes that govern fat oxidation (fat burning) ² ^38-46.

Fish oil also has been shown to increase levels of adiponectin and decrease levels of cortisol ⁴⁷ ⁴⁸. Adiponectin is a novel adipose tissue-specific protein that circulates in human plasma at high levels ⁴⁹. It is one of the physiologically active polypeptides secreted by adipose tissue, whose multiple functions have started to be understood in the last few years. Some of its beneficial effects are enhanced insulin sensitivity, and lowered plasma glucose (blood sugar) and triglyceride levels ⁴⁹ ⁵⁰. A reduction in adiponectin expression is associated with insulin resistance ⁴⁹, and adiponectin levels are inversely related to the degree of adiposity ⁵⁰. The activity of adiponectin has also been associated with steroid and thyroid hormones, glucocorticoids, and nitric oxide, and has anti-atherogenic and anti-inflammatory properties ⁵⁰. Thus, it is plausible that fish oil induces some of its effect by affecting adiponectin levels.

While the functions of adiponectin are just starting to emerge, it is likely to become a target for therapeutic applications in the future.

It is interesting that fish oil lowers cortisol. While the exact role of cortisol in obesity isn’t fully elucidated ⁵¹ ⁵², it is known that excessive cortisol levels result in substantial fat mass gain ⁵³ ⁵⁴. Thus, the reduction in cortisol levels after fish oil supplementation could contribute to the fat loss effect of fish oil. In another upcoming article I will cover the anti-catabolic effects of fish oil in more detail.

What’s in it for me?

At this point you might be thinking “ok, that all sounds nice, but I’m not a rat. Does it work in humans”?

Yes! Read on…In a landmark study, healthy male participants were given a diet where 6 g of fat from butter, olive oil, sunflower oil and peanut oil was replaced with 6 g fish oil (corresponding to 1.1 g EPA and 0.7 g DHA) per day ⁵⁵. After 3 weeks the researchers noted a significant increase in resting fat oxidation (fat burning) and a 1.94 lb (0.88 kg) decrease in body fat (measured by DEXA), in the face of a constant energy intake. Since there was no change in body weight, this implies that the fish oil supplement increased lean body mass (more on that in an upcoming article). This effect was seen despite the fact that the subjects were told not to change their usual exercise and diet habits.

Another study confirmed the ability of fish oil supplementation to increase fat oxidation (fat burning) during exercise ⁵⁶. In this study, recreationally active men were given a daily fish oil supplement corresponding to 2400 mg EPA and 1600 mg DHA for 3 weeks. At the end of the study subjects performed a 60 min jogging exercise bout at 60% of VO2max, during which fat metabolism was measured. It was shown that the fish oil supplementation significantly increased the oxidation of fat for energy (e.g. fat burning) during the exercise session ⁵⁶. It has also been shown that supplementing with fish oil for 3 weeks (1.1 g EPA and 0.7 g DHA daily) significantly decreases insulin levels and increases fat oxidation (fat burning) by 35% (!) after consumption of carbohydrate rich meals ⁵⁷.

Recently, more studies have been published on the topic. In overweight men and women, the effects of the addition of 6 g of fish oil daily (corresponding to 360 mg EPA and 1560 mg DHA) in combination with regular aerobic activity (walking 45 min three times per week at an intensity of 75% of age-predicted maximal heart rate) for 12 weeks, was investigated ⁵⁸. The results showed that the combination of fish oil and regular aerobic activity not only improved several risk factors for cardiovascular disease, but also significantly reduced the amount of body fat ⁵⁸. It is interesting that these effects were noted even though the subjects did not change their usual food habits other than adding the fish oil supplement. This indicates the great potential benefits of fish oil combined with regular physical activity for improving body composition and cardiovascular health. In this study, no fat loss was seen in fish oil only group (that didn’t exercise). This could be due to the older age of the subjects (47-51 yrs) in this study compared to the previous studies, and the relatively low dose of EPA. Fish oil supplementation has also been shown to result in a 2.22 lb (1 kg) greater weight loss after 4 weeks of dieting (reduced caloric intake) ⁵⁹.

Perspective on fish oil and fat loss

In contrast to the positive studies, there are a few that didn’t show any fat loss with fish oil supplementation ^60-63. This could be due to differences in subject characteristics (age, initial body fat mass, baseline physical activity), methodological differences, and differences in fish oil preparations (see below). However, several high quality studies have shown that fish oil supplementation has a significant fat loss effect in addition to all its other health promoting effects. Overall, fish oil seems to have the ability to shift fat metabolism away from storage toward burning of body fat.

It’s getting better – fat loss combined with lean mass (muscle) gain

In one of the most recent studies on fish oil’s fat loss effect, men and women (mean age 33 yrs) where given 4 g of fish oil corresponding to 1600 mg EPA and 800 mg DHA ⁴⁸. After 6 weeks, the placebo group, which was given 4 g of safflower oil, showed a tendency towards fat gain.

The fish oil group instead had lost 0.5 kg of fat mass and gained 0.5 kg of lean mass, with no change in body weight. This is a very beneficial body composition effect and underscores the importance of investigating fat mass and lean mass separately, since just measuring body weight will not tell anything about potential compositional changes, which after all is what is interesting from both a health, esthetic and physical performance viewpoint. I will cover the anti-catabolic and potential lean mass gaining effects of fish oil in another upcoming article.

Wrap up

Whether you are on a diet or not, adding a fish oil supplement to your regimen can effectively help you get in shape. The additional calories from the fish oil will not get stored ⁶⁴; quite to the contrary, fish oil will help you get rid of calories you already have stored in your body fat. What’s interesting is that fish oil supplementation seems to reduce body fat and waist circumference despite unchanged exercise and/or other dietary practices.

Aim for a daily fish oil intake that provides you with at least 1600 mg EPA and 800 mg DHA, but a higher dose, 2400 mg EPA and 1600 mg DHA (a total of 4 g EPA and DHA total), might result in a larger fat loss. To achieve this high intake of EPA and DHA it is advisable to take a fish oil concentrate. In an upcoming article I will go into more detail about fish oil concentrates, different ratios of EPA to DHA in fish oil preparations, their relative effectiveness, safety aspects of high dose fish oil supplementation, and sort through the myriad of fish oil supplements currently available on the market, to help you find a good fish oil supplement that will give you the best bang and effectiveness for your buck.

References

1. Mason CM, Long J, Conroy C. Prescription Omega-3s: An Overview for Nurse Practitioners. The Journal of cardiovascular nursing 2011;26(4):290-97.

2. Baillie RA, Takada R, Nakamura M, Clarke SD. Coordinate induction of peroxisomal acyl-CoA oxidase and UCP-3 by dietary fish oil: a mechanism for decreased body fat deposition. Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and essential fatty acids 1999;60(5-6):351-6.

3. Hill JO, Peters JC, Lin D, Yakubu F, Greene H, Swift L. Lipid accumulation and body fat distribution is influenced by type of dietary fat fed to rats. International journal of obesity and related metabolic disorders : journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 1993;17(4):223-36.

4. Ikemoto S, Takahashi M, Tsunoda N, Maruyama K, Itakura H, Ezaki O. High-fat diet-induced hyperglycemia and obesity in mice: differential effects of dietary oils. Metabolism: clinical and experimental 1996;45(12):1539-46.

5. Su W, Jones PJ. Dietary fatty acid composition influences energy accretion in rats. The Journal of nutrition 1993;123(12):2109-14.

6. Cunnane SC, McAdoo KR, Horrobin DF. n-3 Essential fatty acids decrease weight gain in genetically obese mice. The British journal of nutrition 1986;56(1):87-95.

7. LeBoeuf RC, Veldee MS. Genetically determined body weight loss in mice fed diets containing salmon oil. The Journal of nutrition 1993;123(3):547-58.

8. Mori T, Kondo H, Hase T, Tokimitsu I, Murase T. Dietary fish oil upregulates intestinal lipid metabolism and reduces body weight gain in C57BL/6J mice. The Journal of nutrition 2007;137(12):2629-34.

9. Pan DA, Storlien LH. Dietary lipid profile is a determinant of tissue phospholipid fatty acid composition and rate of weight gain in rats. The Journal of nutrition 1993;123(3):512-9.

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